Window Glazing

Approximately 18% of heat loss in a house is through windows. According to the Energy Saving Trust you could save £135 per year if you upgraded from single to double glazed windows.

To put technical figures on this, it is important to understand what certain values represent.

• U-Values represent the rate of heat transferred over an area. The lower this value the better a material is at not exchanging heat.
• R-Values represent the thermal resistance of a material, the larger the number, the better the materials effectiveness in insulating.

These two values look quite similar. They are. One is the reciprocal of the other. One or both values should be displayed as part of the information of a material that you are buying (whether its windows or loft insulation).

• ‘Low-e’, meaning low emissivity, shows that a material entitled with this on has a low e coating between glass layers. It is a coating of metal onto glass within a glass panes air space. This reflects thermal/heat radiation from the sun or inhibits its emission through the glass therefore reducing heat transfer through the glass.
• SHGC – stands for Solar Heat Gain Coefficient. This basically describes how a material allows heat through itself. In terms of building, such as a trombe wall, you may require a high SHGC to heat your home. In terms of glazing, you will require a low SHGC as this will mean that heat is not readily transferring between the interior and exterior of your house. In terms of windows, single glazing has the highest SHGC, and triple glazing the lowest.

Double or Triple Glazing is better than single glazing in terms of insulating your house, however double and triple are not necessarily better than each other. Triple is more costly for obvious reasons, however if you were to have double glazing with low-e coating in it then there would be only a little difference in U, R and SHGC values in comparison with normal triple glazing, and therefore still cheaper than triple glazing.

Cost

Double and Triple glazing is in the ‘high improvement’ section as it will cost a few thousand pounds to replace your existing single glazing. However, it is expected to last 20 years plus according to the Energy Saving Trust (EST). With this in mind and a quick calculation using the £135 saving per year and say 25 years, only gives you £3375 saved so far. It is recommended that you get quotes from a variety of double and triple glazing installers to get the cheapest. But at best for 10 to 15 windows plus doors you should be paying between £5000 and £6000.

So what are you getting for all this money? Well as for saving money, in the short space of time of 25 years, you’ll probably be in deficit by around £2000. However, you do save according to the EST, 720kg/CO₂, or 18 Tonnes (25 years) of CO₂ based on an average home! You also have the benefit of comfort and security in your home, and in theory a reduction in condensation. Retaining heat in the winter and keeping your house cool in the summer will mean your house is more comfortable to occupy.

So a further option could be of fitting the windows yourself, which may save you that couple of thousand pounds. Fingers crossed your windows will last for at least 44 years if you want to recuperate you money.

The cost figures I have given are based on my own guess/estimation from reading a vast number of blogs about double glazing installations over the internet. It has been useful as it has put into perspective not just the cost of double glazing, but also the companies that are out there and some genuine public opinions of them. This is why it is recommended to research heavily into replacing your windows before undertaking an installation.

Passive Solar Heating

You will have noticed that when you step inside a greenhouse, it tends to be a lot warmer than the outside. This is because of the sun’s ‘heat’ radiating through the glass and becoming trapped. Passive solar heating is all about this and can come within 3 general builds; direct gain, conservatories and trombe walls.

• Direct gain is what it says on the tin. The suns radiation travels through windows or is absorbed by a thermal mass such as a wall and heats the inside. This can be particularly helpful if the building is large, however, being small you will notice your dwelling overheating.
• Conservatories. It is in effect a greenhouse but with ventilation aspects built in. Air within the conservatory heats up, this warm air rises and travels through gaps and holes around your house, eventually leaking outside. This is designed to generally heat up the northern side of your dwelling.
• Trombe Walls. These are in effect a squashed conservatory. They have an air space which is enclosed by double glazing and a thermal mass (such as a specially designed wall in front of your house). When the sun is out, vents can be opened within the wall to allow warm air to circulate around the house. As heat rises the cooler air from your house is sucked into the trombe wall to be reheated. Obviously at night, when there is no chance of solar gain, these vents will be closed to retain heat.

These are useful builds to develop as they provide you with heating, reducing your day heating bill during winter months.

It is difficult to show a cost on conservatory and trombe wall builds as it will all depend on a builder’s quote and the design of your house.

Renewable Energy Technologies (RET)

The big ones! This is in essence, the final stage of cutting down your carbon emissions, saving energy and saving money. At present, no doubt you will have heard about renewable energy both globally and nationally. Buzz words such as sustainability have been used, sometimes in the wrong context. Sustainability or sustainable development means ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (United Nations 1987). Renewable Energy is defined as an energy resource that can never run out. Fossil fuels such as coal, gas and oil, are limited resources, and so are not renewable. In the case of biomass; as long as the fuel is ‘sustainably managed’ then this too, is a renewable resource.

Under the Climate Change Act, the UK has to reduce its CO₂ emissions by at least 26% by 2020. To do this, RET’s will form a substantial percentage of this 26%.

10% of the UK’s electricity generation is to come from Renewable sources by 2020. So, out of this 2% of UK electricity generation is intended to come from micro-scale RET’s, or in other words, from you the householder or small business. This is being done by incentives (such as the Feed-In-Tariff), the usual way of encouragement if the government want and need you to do something. Other percentages may come from the Renewable Heat Incentive, destined to be in place by April 2011 which will cover the thermal side of energy generation, and is expected to cover wood stoves and geothermal energy for example.

This section of the article will briefly outline most types of Renewable Energy Technologies with some food for thought on suitability, incentives and grants, and typical costing. Later articles will go into the overall types of RET’s on a macro (large) and micro (small) scale.

Photovoltaic (PV)

Photo comes from the Greek word for light and voltaic transpires from volt (the driving force in electricity). This is one of the types of solar panels available. This one generates electricity by radiation from the sun. This technology is the highest ‘earning’ in terms of the feed-in-tariff, basically the pence per kilowatt hour an energy company will pay you that you generate.

As the UK is in the Northern Hemisphere of the world then the sun is in a position south of the UK. This means, that to gain maximum radiation for a day, a panel must be installed, south facing. This is where suitability comes into it, and you will need to have a look if you have any space (normally on your roof as this is the least interrupted part of a dwelling as it is not blocked by trees and other buildings etc) available to you that you can install this on.

Also, is your roof built strongly enough? Certain roofs will not be able to hold a panel’s weight, so you may have to have the roof re-strengthened.

Cost – Typical installations range between £8,000 and £12,000. Larger arrays will obviously cost a lot more than this!

F-I-T – The feed- in-tariff, between Apr 2009 and Mar 2012 will give a price of 41.6p/kWh for an installation built onto an existing dwelling, or 36.1p/kWh for an installation built onto a new build. The lifespan however for PV feed-in-tariff is set to last until 2035!

The map shows average irradiation (or intensity of the sun) in Europe [1].

Solar Thermal

The other solar panel! This panel involves heating a fluid within the pipe workings of the panel which then in turn heat water or air. These tend to be cheaper than the PV panels. There are two types of solar thermal panels; evacuated tubes and flat plate collectors. There are also ‘point’ and ‘line’ focus collectors which involve dishes and curved troughs which aim the suns radiation to one focus point which then heats water; however the technologies are not so commonplace domestically.

Cost –Typical costs of a solar thermal panel are anywhere between £3,000 and £5,000, depending on the rating in kW.

F-I-T – The feed-in-tariff for solar thermal, between Apr 2009 and Mar 2012 is 18p/kWh, and is valid until 2030.

Biomass

Biomass is a collective term for materials that are or have been a living organism and are biodegradable. Biomass ranges from food waste to crops and wood. Biomass is generally used on a micro scale for heating purposes. However, on macro scale, both electricity and heat are generated. Biomass technologies on a macro scale range from straw fired power stations to anaerobic digesters. On a micro scale they are generally wood pellet stoves to wood burners.

Cost – A wood stove is likely to cost around £3,000, whereas a gravity or automatically fed wood pellet stove is around £8,500 -£9,500.S

F-I-T – There is no feed-in-tariff for Biomass. This is likely to come under the new Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI) to be implemented in 2011.

Wind

The UK has one of the best wind resources in the world. There has been much controversy surrounding wind generation, ranging from bird deaths to noise and the actual storage and supply of the electricity. This will be discussed in a later article. The name windmill and wind turbine often get confused. A wind mill uses wind to ‘mill’ a material, most notably corn and wheat to make flour. A wind turbine uses wind to generate electricity through a ‘turbine’ and generator.

There are many different sizes of wind turbine, on a micro scale, domestic roof mounted turbines tend to be rated at no larger than 2kW. Free standing micro scale turbines rate between 6 and 15kW and on a macro scale, usually built as a ‘wind farm’ turbines at present are rated 0.5 to 3MW. There are some turbines being developed that are rated as a whopping 6.5MW!

The suitability for a wind turbine depends on many things. Wind speed is of the most important. Turbines are generally built where an average wind speed for a year is around 5.5 metres per second and higher. Free standing turbines need to be above the ground in such a way that the surrounding area does not block or inhibit the wind causing turbulence. Therefore, a turbine should definitely not be sited near trees and buildings. The turbulence affects the turbines efficiency to generate electricity effectively.

Turbines can be built in conservational areas providing they meet the correct criteria. This can involve ensuring that the turbines do not suppress a view or inhibit the lives of endangered species.

Turbines should also be built as near as possible to the electricity grid due to the large cost that comes with building a connection.

Cost –Typical cost of a roof mounted turbine is around £1,500 to £2,000, whereas larger turbines are around £3,000 to £20,000, depending on the rating.

F-I-T –The feed-in-tariff between Apr 2009 and Mar 2012 is 34.5p/kWh for turbines rated below 1.5kW, and 26.7p/kWh for turbines rated between 1.5 and 15kW

Bio-fuels

Bio-fuels are not a relatively new idea. Rudolph Diesel invented the diesel engine originally to run on vegetable oil. Bio-fuels can be made from a variety of ‘energy crops’. There are two main types of bio-fuel, bio-diesel and bio-ethanol. Bio-diesel is manufactured to be the fuel in a diesel engine and is predominantly made from the oils of plants and other organisms. Bio-ethanol is the fuel substitute in a petrol engine and is made by turning plants sugars into alcohol.

You may see in fuel stations ‘blends’ of diesel and petrol. Such as E85 or E80, meaning 80 or 85% of the fuel volume is made up of the bio-fuel and the remaining 10 or 15% is the fossil fuel.

The cost of biodiesel at this present time (11^th June 2010) is around £1.04 – £1.05/litre for E100 biodiesel [2].

The cost of bio ethanol at this present time (11^th June 2010) is around £1.12 for E85 [3].

Hydro

‘Hydroelectricity’ in essence means ‘water electricity generation’. On a micro scale a hydro project could be built where there is a substantial enough flow of running water (that flows all year round). There are many variations of hydro turbines that are designed to work efficiently in a specific water condition. However, to get more power out of a body of water will really depend on how fast the water is flowing. The amount of energy that you could get out of a flow of water is quite amazing, which could mean a small payback period. I have visited a project that literally only took a couple of years for the owners to get their money back because they were selling what they didn’t use to the grid.

Some draw backs;

• The capital needed to be raised for the project is often quite large.
• You will need to consult the Environment Agency about the water course. Often there are fish or newts living in the water, and this may inhibit the project.

Cost – A micro hydro project could range anywhere between £20,000 and £40,000, depending on circumstances

F-I-T – The feed-in-tariff between Apr 2009 and Mar 2012 is 19.9p/kWh and lasts for 20 years.

Geothermal

‘Geothermal’, comes from the Greek Geo – meaning earth, and thermos – meaning heat. Geothermal technology is defined as a renewable resource.

Heat can be extracted from the ground anywhere in the world. However, for large scale needs a geothermal heat pump would have to be drilled to a deeper depth or be situated near a hot source. Hot springs, geysers and aquifers are examples of hot fluid sources. Drilling into deep rock where no fluid is present is known as ‘hot dry rock geothermal energy’. Fluid in this case is manually pumped down a bore hole to be heated up.

However, over extraction of heat from hot fluid sources too quickly can cause a cold spot.

Ground and Air Source Heat Pumps (GSHP and ASHP)

Ground and air source heat pumps are similar to air conditioning units. What ground source heat pumps do, is to extract heat from the ground during the winter, and put heat into the ground during the summer. It works because the earth remains at a pretty constant temperature during the entire year. Air source heat pumps work very similarly to this as well. Air and ground source heat pumps work like a refrigerator; however unlike a refrigerator, they can reverse between cooling and heating!

Cost- Anywhere between £7,000 and £13,000 for GSHP, and between £5,000 and £9,000 for ASHP.

F-I-T – Feed-in-tariff, from Apr-2009 to Mar 2012, around 7p/kWh. The lifespan for this particular price is until 2028 for ASHP and 2033 for GHSP.

For any more information on any large scale energy saving change you are considering for your home feel free to make an enquiry with Energy Saving Warehouse.

[1] http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/cmaps/eu_opt/pvgis_Europe-solar_opt_presentation.png

[2] Taken from an online source; http://www.swbiofuels.co.uk/pricing.php

[3] Taken from a Taunton Morrison’s Fuel Station

There are three significant differences between gasoline and electric cars; the gasoline engine is replaced with an electric motor, the electric motor gets it power from a controller and the controller gets it power from rechargeable batteries (Brain,2005). The electric car has proven to be beneficial to our environment for a number of reasons. The most foremost being that no carbon emissions are released from the cars and with other benefits being its compact size and silent motor shows these vehicles are almost suited to urban environments where pollution is at its peak (Funk and Rabl,1999). Driving a standard car pushes up your carbon footprint substantially, but luckily there are many easy and simple ways to track and hopefully reduce your carbon footprint.

The efficiency of the electric car is likely to be the most appealing to buyers with the ‘Tesla Roadster’ model only consuming 110 watt-hours of electricity from the battery to provide a km worth of driving (Eberhard and Tarpenning 2007). Furthermore the efficiency of electric cars can overall be estimated at 59-62% in comparison to gasoline vehicles which is very low at 17-21% (US department of energy, 2013) showing the environmental benefits these cars have.

However with all energy saving methods they come with disadvantages making the electric car seem less appealing. The cost of buying an electric car for starts off at £13,650 for the Renault zoe electric model rising up to a £87,945 for the Tesla Roadstar showing this form of new green technology may not be available to all with its financial constraints (Greencar,2013). Furthermore the driving range of most EV vehicles is limited to 100-200 miles and the recharge time necessary is approximately 4-8 hours showing the time consuming nature of these products (US department of energy, 2013). The cost of the battery has also shown to be a disadvantage as well and the density of the battery is thought to have put some buyers off. Producing the electricity means producing greenhouse gases and some scientists have described the use of electric cars as ‘pollution diverters’. Depending on the fuel type the emissions produced vary with renewables producing  0 g km⁻¹  to a coal based plant producing   155 g km⁻¹  worth of greenhouse emissions (Vliet,2011). Therefore the use of electric cars needs to be thoroughly considered before purchasing however it is clear that there is a lot of potential for the future.

Energy Saving Warehouse has lots of ideas and products that can go a long way in reducing your overall environmental impact.

Brain,M.2005. How electric cars work.(pdf). Available at: http://srinivasarao.webs.com/electric-cars.pdf accessed on: 28th July 2013.

Eberhard,M., Tarpenning, M.2007.The 21^st century electric car.(pdf) available at: http://www.fcinfo.jp/whitepaper/687.pdf accessed on: 28th July 2013.

Funk,K., Rabl.A, 1999. Electric versus conventional vehicles: social costs and benefits in France. Transportation Research. Vol 4(6)

Greencar,2013.EV models . (online). Available at: http://www.nextgreencar.com/electric-cars/available-models.php accessed on 28th July 2013.

Nichols, W. 2011.History of the electric car: nineteenth century novelty to 21^st –century style. (Guardian online). Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/electric-vision/history-of-the-electric-car. Accessed on: 28th July 2013.

Telegraph, 2009. Worlds first electric car built by Victorian inventor 1884. (telegraph online). Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/5212278/Worlds-first-electric-car-built-by-Victorian-inventor-in-1884.html accessed on: 28th July 2013

Vliet,O,. Brouwer,A.,Kuramochi, T.,Broek,M.,Faaij,2011. Energy use, cost  and CO₂  emissions of electric cars. Journal of power sources.  Vol 196 (4).

US department of energy, 2013.Electric vehicles. (online) Available at: http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/evtech.shtml. Accessed on: 28th July 2013.

The introduction of solar panels into the UK first became apparent in the year of 2006 however it has been noted that solar panel installations have fallen by 90% since 2012 (Carrington, 2012). Solar panels work by harnessing the sun’s energy in the form of light and converting energy into electricity. There are a variety of solar panels available to consumers including the use of the smallest unit a photovoltaic or PV cell – an individual cell turning sunlight into electricity. Solar panels can also be used to heat water or space within the home. The individual cells work by arranging themselves into a module or a panel, with the average residential or business solar panels holding up to approximately 40 cells (US department of energy, 2012) However even though this relatively new form of renewable energy technology sounds innovative extravagant they have often been a controversial issue with many considering solar panels having more disadvantages than advantages.

As Hayes and Shikasho (1977) solar panels often require large pumps which may be provided to compensate for the fluid pressure drop appearing across solar collector panels. Furthermore the difficulty of installation and maintenance of solar collector panels due to their relatively large size and integral construction provokes further issues with solar panels. As the solar photovoltaic matures, the economic feasibility of PV projects is increasingly becoming debated (Branker et.al, 2011). It has been estimated by comparemysolar.com (2013) that the cost of solar panels are approximately £15,000 for 16 solar panels highlighting the true extent of this costly invention. With the UK lying at a relatively high latitude, London only receives 0.11 KW/m2 on average in comparison to Athens with 0.19km² and Cairo which is 0.24km², considering that the UK’s average electricity demand is 60 million KW, using solar power alone would mean an area nearly 30 times the size of London would need to be covered in solar panels (Edfenergy, 2013).

In comparison to other renewable energy sources solar panels seems a relatively poor source to be used in the UK. Tidal power provides constant energy, low running costs and maintenance costs typically lower than 0.5% of initial capital cost meaning tidal power seems a more feasible option (Hammons, 1993). Biofuel may also provide an excellent alternative with the source already provided in waste products the cost is extremely low. This renewable energy has seen great advances, having first progressed from its first generation of simply using agricultural crops such as rape and sunflower (Biofuels technology platform, 2008) through to its second generation using entire plant species through to the third generation of developing fuels from algae this renewable energy source seems to have great potential for the future (Environment and Energy, 2008). Furthermore other renewable energy such as geothermal energy a relatively new technology may provide alternatives to using fossil fuel as it is available 24 hours a day and is a clean technology, modern plants in production also provide little CO₂ and is efficient ( Geothermal engineering, 2013). Considering that it has been estimated by EDF energy (2013) that PV cells only have 10% conversion efficiency it is necessary to revaluate the use of solar power as a renewable energy source to be used in the UK.

References

-          Biofuels technology platform (2008) ‘Second Generation Fuel Production’ Biofuels Technology Platform.

-           Branker, K. , Pathkak, M, Peace, J. 2011. A review of solar photovoltaic levelised cost of electricity. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews.  Vol 15 ( 9)

-       Carrington, D (2012). Solar panel demand down nearly 90% following subsidy cut. ( Guardian online) Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/may/01/solar-panel-demand-subsidy-cut, accessed on : 29^th April 2013.

- Comparemysolar, 2013. Solar panel prices: compare prices and savings from Local installers. (online) Available at: http://www.comparemysolar.co.uk/solar-panel-prices/ accessed on: 26^th April 2013

-    EDFenergy, 2013. How much sunlight can the UK harness. (online) Available at: http://www.edfenergy.com/energyfuture/energy-gap-quantity/solar-and-the-energy-gap-quantity accessed on 26th April 2013.

-  Environment and Energy (2008) ‘3^rd generation biofuel algae’ (Accessed 21st February 2009)

-        Geothermal engineering (2013). Geothermal energy environmental benefits.(online) Available at: http://www.geothermalengineering.co.uk/page/environmental-benefits.html accessed on 29th April 2013.

-          Hammons, T, 1993. Tidal power. Proceedings of the IEEE. Vol 8  (3)

-          Hayes, R. Shikasho,S (1977). Solar Heating/ cooling system. United States Patent.

-          US department of energy, 2012. Small solar electric systems. (online) Available at : http://energy.gov/energysaver/articles/small-solar-electric-systems Accessed on; 26th April

A “low and no cost” improvement to your household is something that you can do to improve your living costs. Hopefully, in reading this, you are already making energy efficiency your No.1 priority in reducing your energy costs. You can be assured that you will see a reduction in your energy bills, but do not expect anything astronomical as of yet! This article will look at and give some examples of minor changes to either, your behaviour towards energy efficiency which you may not have yet considered, or low cost changes such as lighting and draught sealing.

It would be a good idea to record any changes that you have made, this then allows you to give yourself a well earned pat on the back when you can see the progress you have made. An example evaluation of a local pub has been provided at the bottom of this article on savings, investments and paybacks as an example of how you can do this to your own home or business.

Most households either have a gas or oil fuel supply, combined with an electricity connection.

Low and no cost solutions at this stage will only be applicable to the electrical consumption of a household. However, measures into making your home more insulated against outside temperatures can start with basic draught proofing including looking into space heating. Due to the necessity of using energy for cooking, it is difficult to reduce energy use and reduction of use is not as substantial as that for electrical appliance and space heating (See Diagram). Despite this there are ways of reducing energy use during cooking.

Lighting your home

Lighting forms 20% of a household’s average electricity bill. Presently there are many energy efficient light bulbs of all different shapes and sizes for you to replace your existing incandescent light bulbs. Despite the myths and people’s misconception (which are now proven to be incorrect), energy efficiency light bulbs are a must have if you want to begin cutting down your energy bills [2].

This is because energy efficient light bulbs use around 80% less energy than old incandescent ones, and it does not cost a fortune to replace all your old lights with them.

Draught Proofing

Dwellings require controlled ventilation in order to keep the air inside dry and fresh. Air should be free to circulate around the entire house in order to exchange stale air for fresh air, therefore minimising stagnant areas of the house where damp and mildew can form. Draughts, however, are uncontrollable, and this results in the house exchanging too much air with the outside. This is most noticeable in the winter, as cold air from the outside leaks in and reduces the temperature of your house, therefore you require more heating to keep your house warm and effectively “throwing money out of your windows”.

Draught proofing is a relatively low cost improvement that can be made to your home and, depending on the situation from house to house, could save you a few hundred pounds in your heating bill. It is important to remember not to attempt doing any higher cost improvements until you have done all you can on the lower cost improvements.

“Do it yourself” draught proofing materials should cost around £100, and to get a professional in you would probably be looking to double this figure.

Areas to look at draught proofing are:

• Chimneys & Fireplaces
• Doors
• Floorboards & Skirting
• Loft Hatches
• Pipeworking
• Wall Cracks
• Windows

As well as this, look at key holes and letter boxes. There are purpose built key flaps and draught proof letter boxes available from most DIY shops.

Play the Energy Companies

Energy companies (distribution) do not directly supply electricity and gas to your house. The national grid deals with the transportation of the electricity, whereas the distribution companies are the “go-betweeners” and instigate the selling of energy to a household. Like any business company of this size, they are all in competition with each other to get the highest profits. In order to do this they offer “amazing” deals to try and tempt more people to switch to them. Sometimes this can actually result as being the cheapest solution in the short-run, however, further down the line the prices are slowly increased, and this is why you should always take time to check what you’re currently paying for your energy. Often there is a company cheaper than all of the rest to provide you your energy. In doing this you are effectively “playing the energy companies at their own game”. Every 5-6 months have a look at one of the many price comparison websites and see if there is another energy company out there that will give you a better deal, after all, the energy ineffectively comes from the same pot!

However, when doing this be careful to look at what you are signing up to carefully, some companies in their small print state that you will have to pay a “get-out” fee so that you can switch. Others will give you money for joining their energy company, so it could work out that you do not actually lose money due to this.

Other websites, such as the ones below, will offer to do this and switch between the companies for you, for free. It is often the case that customers are on old tariffs (which they may be paying a lot more money than they could be) or just stick with the same energy company year on year.

Price comparison websites:

• www.uswitch.com
• www.moneysupermarket.com
• www.energyhelpline.com
• www.tescoenergy.com

Or why not use ESW’s own comparison tool to compare green energy providers in your area?

General tips and changes in attitude

• Is your cylinder thermostat set to 60⁰C?
• Can you turn down your heating by 1⁰C? If so that may cut your energy bills in heating by 10% Having your heating programmed at a low temperature throughout the day will also keep your heating as efficient as possible. Your main living area should really be set to 21⁰C and all other rooms at 18⁰C.
• Free heat when the sun retreats? Capture a few hours worth of free energy by closing all your windows just before dusk. Closing curtains on the north side of you house will act as insulation allowing the suns energy to come through the south side and not allowing much escaping through the south side!
• Turn your lights off when you’re not going to be in the room for a while.
• Standby is a big no. Some appliances can use around 20% of the energy when just on standby. Switch them off, the pennies add up. Other appliances may have internal clocks which may still draw out energy when not in use.
• No half measures with your washing machine…Fill it up! You will use less energy and water for one big load rather than two small ones. Also, try to use your tumble dryer as least as possible.
• Only boil as much water as you need in your kettle.
• Fix your dripping taps, especially hot ones.

[1] http://www.spacealtherma.com:8080/AlthermaSite/index_altherma.jsp?mt=882&taxonomy_id=882&lang=en&site=256

[2] 2. Lighting Brochure, Energy Saving Trust. Available [Online] at; http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/Media/node_1422/A-bright-idea-has-got-even-better

In the future most households in the UK can expect to be offered a new option for managing their energy usage in the home. The Smart Meter system (seen in the picture below) is set to be a new trend in utility supply with the UK Government recently advocating their target for every household to have one installed by 2020 [1]. For customers who are sick of estimated bills inspired by vague meter readings once a year, this should come as good news. Finally it would appear that we are embarking upon a new era of energy supply, one in which consumers may really take control of how they run their energy intensive dwellings.

A few days ago a ring at the door presenting me with a parcel, meticulously wrapped and branded in garish red I was told I had received my free home energy monitor from my utilities supplier Npower. The principle is simple, attach a sensor to the cable exiting your electricity meter and a remote monitor tells you how much electricity you are using. As I turn to the screen at a push of a button I can see how much I am consuming (both in cost and Kilowatts) and how that translates into KG of Carbon an hour. This is only a monitor and communication is not two way as with fully installed Smart Meters. With Smart technology the provider takes readings a few times a day from your monitor and charges in accordance with actual usage of energy. Looking at the monitors screen in my badly insulated and hugely inefficient student home I am shocked as my history tells me I have already used £1.18 and emitted 5.29kg CO₂ worth of electricity today (the time is only 12.20pm). Of course here the Smart Meter has done its job, as we speak I am already looking around the room to see what appliances and lights I can switch off, reducing the gage on the monitor that looks similar to your average car speedo.

According to an interview with The Guardian, First:Utility (the first company to offer a full smart meter energy plan in the UK) ‘bill shock’ is the first reaction of customers. As individuals see just how much energy they are using on a chilly winters day, they may realise that their estimated billing was actually costing less than actual usage [3]. Smart Meters look set to benefit consumers who readily use the information provided, directly being able to see how much turning an appliance off will save you in real time should mean a more efficient household? Indeed Smart Meters could define a trend of more responsible energy consumers, ones that are priced for the environmental externalities of over consumption.

On closer inspection however it would appear that the Smart Meter system is far from meeting its 2020 distribution target. A quick look at the reviews section of moneysupermarket.com shows a bleak picture for First:Utility, initial and only supplier of Smart Energy tariffs in the UK. With an average customer review of just 4/10 complaints include difficulties with processing smart readings and poor customer service [4]. Indeed in theory the Smart Meter system is brilliant however may not hold up in practice, at least not yet. If you have not recieved a smart meter through your energy company then why not consider biting the bullet and purchasing one yourself, we have a great range here at ESW. The initial cost will no doubt be covered by savings in your energy bills once you have a greater understanding of how much energy you are consuming.

The Department for Energy and Climate Change (DECC) state that the distribution of Smart Meters will entail a replacement of some 50 million redundant meters requiring visits to over 25 million UK homes [5]. In this light it must be questioned just how viable a complete overhaul of our current utility provision is by 2020. Despite this it is argued by the DECC that transitions to a low carbon economy will require major changes to the way we supply and use energy. Furthermore it is proposed that a ‘Smart Energy System’ will smooth demand, making the energy system more efficient and ready to take on sustainable technologies such as renewables [1]. Eventually it is proposed that energy companies will be able to switch off consumers appliances remotely, thereby reducing the burden on an electricity system in demand [6]. With energy sources such as wind and solar that produce energy in uneven bursts throughout the day depending on weather conditions, this technology is seen as paramount. A smart electricity grid will also allow for producers of their own energy (such as wind and solar power) to sell any surplus back to the grid rewarding their good environmental behaviour. In this light it would appear that a smart electricity grid really will reward good environmental citizens whilst placing restrictions on the biggest polluters.

Overall it would appear that a revamped energy system, one in which provision and demand are managed more effectively will be paramount to achieving a sustainable energy future. Indeed Smart Meters do provide a brilliant opportunity, presenting real time information on energy used and where savings can be made. For example businesses with multiple locations may use the Smart Meter system to accurately monitor energy usage and costs in a reliable way. Whilst the Smart Meter system may not be quite ready to roll out in the UK yet, with the only supplier gaining much bad press it would appear that the paths are defined. In the near future consumers can expect to be presented with new flexible energy tariffs that use Smart Meters for implementation. Indeed the path to a decentralised energy system in which the consumer may really define and take control of home energy usage may be nearer than you think.

[1] DECC (2009a) Smarter Grids: The Opportunity. December 2009. Available From: http://www.decc.gov.uk

[2] http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=virginia-smart-meters-power-grid

[3] Bachelor, L. (2010) Will Smart Meters Help Reduce Energy Bills? The Guardian. March 8th, 2010

[4] moneysupermarket.com (2010) First:Utility Customer Reviews. [Accessed: 24/5/2010].

[5] DECC (2009b) Energy Metering: A Consultation on Smart Metering for Energy and Gas. May 2009. Available From: http://www.decc.gov.uk

[6] Jameson, A. (2010) British Gas Jumps the Gun With Smart Meters for a Million Families. The Times. March 29th, 2010.

1.0 Introduction

There’s no doubt that in the present business climate having a strategy to reduce carbon emissions is not just good for the environment but makes business sense. There are many varying reasons why organisations are trying to reduce their carbon emissions. These range from an attempt to prevent dangerous climate change, to securing the trust and loyalty of customers. Some leading businesses feel they have a moral responsibility to lead in environmental issues; while others just see carbon reduction as another tool to penetrate the market with; and yet others see it as a way to cut costs. Whatever the reasons are, carbon reduction is very much a topical issue these days.

Reduction techniques fall into three basic categories:

• Reduce: through conservation measures (e.g. good practices such as turning off a light bulb) and efficiency measures (e.g. using more efficient technology)
• Switch: changing the type of energy in use to low or zero carbon alternatives.
• Offset: funding a project that absorbs carbon or emits very low level of carbon into the atmosphere.

2.0 Carbon Offsetting

With this strategy an organisation or a person funds a project that prevents or reduces an amount of carbon entering the atmosphere, or absorbs CO₂ from the atmosphere. The project types suitable to generate carbon offset include renewable energy generation, methane abatement, energy efficiency, reforestation and land management which sequesters GHG, fuel switching etc. Often it is used for organisations to meet greenhouse targets when the cost of internal reduction is too high.

It is important to establish that the EU’s Emissions Trading Scheme is beyond the scope of this paper. It focuses on the voluntary carbon offset market. A commonly used approach at the moment is forestry[1]. Trees use up CO₂ during the process of photosynthesis in their food manufacture. The more trees there are, the more carbon will be absorbed from the atmosphere, and hence dangerous climate change can be prevented.

Toshiba’s carbon zero laptops[2] is a good example of the tree planting approach. The idea is that customers donate £1.28; the money goes towards new dedicated woodland in Devon. The native broad-leafed trees can apparently absorb up to a tonne of carbon in their lifetime. There are a few issues here: At an average life-span of 5 years over 20 laptops will be used during the life-span of one of the 13,000 trees. There are presumably far more than 13,000 Toshiba laptop users in the UK. Can the woodlands absorb all the emissions associated with the supply chain, production, transport, storage, use and disposal of all these laptops and their parts such as spare batteries? How is the carbon value calculated?

Here are some arguments which weaken the strategy of offsetting as a whole, namely,

• Project failures. The Coldplay mango plantation[3] in southern India is a classic example of a failed offset scheme. There are many reasons why projects fail. And due to lack of ownership and ineffective monitoring and implementation, offset projects have a high risk of failure.
• The concept of ‘Additionality’ is contentious and unclear. For a project to pass as an offset project it has to be proven that it yields additional carbon reduction compared to ‘business as usual’. It is not clear whether giving a high energy efficient stove to poorer communities in Africa (as done by CO2balance.uk.com) will lead to carbon reductions compared to when they didn’t have any stoves at all.
• The problem of calculating carbon saving or reduction. There is no standard approach of calculating quantities or pricing structures. Therefore it is not clear what carbon is being offset by a particular project.
• There is no standard verification body in the voluntary market. Some emissions reduction is verified by independent parties while others are not, this means that the emissions reduction claimed by some credits are uncertain.

Although the above arguments cast a lot of doubt over the extent to which offsetting actually reduces CO₂, this strategy has some positives:

• Raises public awareness about climate change through the publications and adverts of offset companies.
• Carbon offsetting can provide the much needed funds to develop low carbon technologies in the developing world.
• Offsetting supports projects in areas, such as Africa, where there are very few projects from the compliance offset market.
• It can act as a testing ground for new projects wanting to enter the compliance market
• It could reduce beyond the standard set by Kyoto, even though marginal

Although these may cut down carbon in the atmosphere, there are many parties involved that need to work together for any success to be achieved. If an organisation is serious about climate change and wants to take responsibility for their emissions, offsetting would not be the way to go. However offset projects could be useful when the organisation has reduced its total carbon footprint to a point where it is not sensible[4] (economically, socially or otherwise) to go any further but feel they want to do more.

The following statement from the World Development Movement sums it up adequately, “It is nonsensical to suggest that climate change can be tackled by cutting emissions from poor people, whilst allowing activities of the rich… to continue unabated. Yet this is the basis on which offsetting projects in developing countries are supposed to work.[5]”

Teleconferencing means two or more people can enjoy a telephone conversation no matter where they are, whether that is a different room or a different city. There are many advantages teleconferencing has brought with businesses benefiting from a more efficient method of working and communicating with other colleagues.

Making efficiency gains will be an attractive feature for every business. As teleconferencing can take place anywhere in the world, between different offices and between different clients, employees won’t need to travel as much which will save company finances as well as the time and energy of employees which can be redistributed to other projects.

Cost Reductions can be significant too. Being able to teleconference with many people in different locations at the same time will certainly reduce costs. Compared to the traditional method of cost of the train or flight and the hotel room, teleconferencing offers many cost savings but increasingly carbon savings as well.

A lot of company time can be saved by using conference calling. Using teleconferencing means the employee can cut straight to the meeting and eliminate unnecessary travelling, stress and exertion.

Teleconferencing also means if urgent decisions are required then meetings can be organised at very short notice. Video conference providers also allow you to record meetings therefore the meeting minutes can be assembled after the meeting, saving time for all parties.

Companies that embrace teleconferencing can reduce outgoings, improving margins and lowering their companies carbon footprint.

Hemp has always had that hippy vibe attached to it and a person wearing clothes made from hemp will often be stereotyped. However, I want to investigate whether there may be more significant uses to this plant other than supplying the clothes stalls at Glastonbury. If this is indeed the case, then is it being under used and why?

What is hemp?

Hemp (cannabis sativa) is a fast-growing herbaceous plant. Hemp plants take only 70 to 100 days to fully mature and can be between 2 and 5 metres in height. Although from the same family and almost identical in appearance to the marijuana plant, hemp has minimal quantities of the narcotic agent tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Getting high on hemp has been likened to trying to get drunk on low-alcohol beer. Nevertheless, because of its association with marijuana, hemp has had a slightly chequered history. In the last hundred years or so, many countries banned farmers from growing the plant, but in light of prudent research and a number of myth-busting exercises, many have subsequently lifted the bans. In the UK, Defra has sanctioned the growing of hemp crops and cited in a report (2005) that it has many beneficial factors, such as providing habitats for wildlife and its ability to be grown with practically zero use of pesticides and herbicides [1]. Historically, hemp has been widely grown and used; Tomas Jefferson grew hemp and then went on to draft the US declaration of independence on hemp paper. For the following hundred years or so, 75% of the world’s paper was made from hemp [2] and Henry Ford even made a car from the stuff – and then powered it on hemp biofuel. Nevertheless, this was not enough to save hemp from decline. The discovery of oil, and consequently plastic, saw the virtual end of hemp as a construction material, sailing ships which used hemp rope and sails were replaced by steam ships, wood became the material of choice for making paper, and a global trade in cheap cotton saw hemp slowly disappear as a clothing fabric. However, we are now witnessing a revival of the hemp industry and I shall go on to explain how it is making a comeback.

Uses for hemp

Clothing – This is probably where most of us are familiar with the use of hemp. The fibres from the stalks of the plant are used to make a tough durable material that can easily be woven to make clothing fabric; the original Levis jeans were made from hemp canvas. Clothing made from hemp is stronger and more long lasting than that of cotton and it’s worth noting that almost half of the agricultural chemicals applied to US crops are used for growing cotton [3].

Plastic – Hemp has the capacity to be moulded into many forms of plastic, but it is currently very expensive. The world’s first hemp CD is available and it even comes in a hemp case – although with the imminent demise of the CD in the face of digital music, this may have come just a tad too late. If, however, you are still into CDs and like your new age music for relaxation and well-being, then please do seek one out online and order yourself a copy. On a more serious note; plastic is a menace to the environment, causing a massive build up of non-biodegradable waste and consuming a finite fossil fuel (oil) in its manufacture. If a naturally grown material can be used to replace some of this plastic, then the environment could really benefit.

Food – Hemp is an unsung hero when it comes to nutrition, albeit that it generally only finds its way on the shelves of health food shops. The seeds from hemp can be used as a beneficial nutritional supplement and contain fibre, protein and essential fatty acids (EFAs). In fact, they contain a higher total of EFAs than any other seed oil [4] and are widely hailed as being superior to even the soybean. Has anybody told the Chinese this?

Building – A relatively new use for hemp is to mix it with lime to form a lightweight construction material similar to concrete. This eco-alternative can be used to form solid non-load bearing panels or bricks and has been successfully used in the construction of buildings [5]. Although given a rather uninspiring name, Hemcrete, the manufacturers claim that it:

• Produces 130kg less carbon per square metre of wall than traditional materials and being a natural product, also absorbs CO₂ during the plant’s growth.
• Is made from UK grown hemp.
• Has excellent insulation properties. [6]

There are a wealth of articles and papers online to support these claims, as well as other brands of hemp masonry, which I would assume perform to a similar level. This being the case, it would appear that in hemp we have a genuine eco-building material. To put that into context; the average intensity of global carbon emissions from cement production is 222kg of carbon per tonne of cement, with the industry accounting for 5% of global anthropogenic (manmade) carbon emissions [7].

Car parts – Many car manufacturers are looking into using hemp – and other plant-based materials – to make various different car components [8]. This will affect every aspect of a car’s life cycle, from replacing man-made parts used in manufacture, to the end of the car’s life when biodegradable products can have a huge impact on the waste produced from old cars. This material is tough too. When Henry Ford took an axe to his hemp-made car, the vehicle shrugged it off as if it had been tickled. Amazing.

Henry Ford whacks his 1941 car to show the strength of the hemp-made boot panel.

Paper – Paper made from hemp is widely hailed as being far more environmentally friendly than paper made from wood. The yield from hemp is 4 times as high as that from trees and its low lignin content (cell binding fibre) removes the need for acid to be used in the pulping process, lowering waste water contamination. The paper is generally of a better quality than wood-based paper and will not turn yellow over time.

Biofuel – Hemp can easily be turned into a biofuel to power our cars, buses and lorries. However, biofuels are a contentious subject, and I’m not going to dwell too much on this potential use for the crop. Although a wonderful thing about hemp-derived biofuel is that it’s green…no really; I mean it’s actually green. Nice touch. As it currently stands, however, it is not commercially viable to grow hemp as a biofuel crop because it’s too expensive in relation to the alternatives [9].

Alongside all of the uses and products hemp can bring us, we must also consider the fact that as a spring crop it’s beneficial to wildlife, its deep roots aerate the soil and, because it replaces soil nutrients, hemp is a perfect rotation crop, so can be grown within a wider agricultural operation. Searching online for hemp products will turn up an almost never-ending list of different things that we can do with this crop (I have only touched the surface in this article). It may not be the solution to all of our environmental problems, but if this plant can be used to replace some of the more damaging products and processes currently employed by us to sustain our everyday lives, then surely that’s a start.

In summary then…

It would appear that far from being consigned to the depths of history or simply being a niche product, hemp is actually making a comeback. But what can you do with this information with regards to saving energy and carbon? Well, to begin with, I hope that I may have dispelled the image of sandal-wearing hippies that seems synonymous with hemp and that you can see it’s a versatile crop that is most definitely undervalued. I remember a time when organic food was seen as the choice of vegans and health freaks only – look at it now. Perhaps the same can happen for hemp and bring with it a host of environmental benefits. If you are looking for eco alternatives whether just for something as simple as a dietary additive or you are considering building an eco home, do add this to your list of potential purchases.

I have to admit that I am now a complete hemp convert. Should you be out and about one day and happen to see a hemp-dressed man, driving a hemp-built, hemp fuelled car, up the driveway of his hemp-built house, bringing in his hemp food which is packed in hemp shopping bags… that’ll be me. Peace out man.

References

[1] http://www.defra.gov.uk/foodfarm/growing/crops/industrial/pdf/flaxhemp-report.pdf

[2] http://hemporganic.com/whyhemp.html

[3] http://www.azhemp.org/Archive/Package/Facts/facts.html

[4] http://www.hemp.co.uk/Hemp_UK/Hemp_Food.html

[5] http://opus.bath.ac.uk/16170/1/papers/Paper%20123.pdf

[6] http://www.limetechnology.co.uk/

[7] http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.energy.26.1.303

[8] http://www.eeda.org.uk/3319.asp

[9] http://biodieselmagazine.com/article.jsp?article_id=1434

Virtual water is defined then as the volume of water that has been used making the product that we say is virtually embedded in the product [1]. If a product is highly water intensive to produce then the mass of virtual water embedded can be orders of magnitude greater than the mass of the original product. For example 1 kg of cotton can contain 3644 kg of embedded water, so pair of jeans (0.5 kg) will have 1822 kg of water embedded in them [2].

Like all goods virtual water can also be exported and imported. If one country exports a water intensive product to another we can say the water has been virtually traded between the two countries [3]. Although there has been no physical transfer of water between the two nations the net result is the same. Countries can also export their water intensive activities to other countries creating a net import of virtual water.

You might think that it would follow that countries with more fresh water resources available would net export virtual water to those with less but this is rarely the case. In fact it is often the countries that suffer from water scarcity that produce the most water intensive crops (for example coffee or cotton) and by exporting them they too export virtual water. This can further increase global water inequality as countries suffering from water scarcity can loose even more of their precious water resources.

It is not simply a question of simply the total volume of water that has gone into making a product but we must also look at what type of water has been used. These are colour coded as blue, green and grey virtual water [4].

• Green water is the volume of water that is evaporated from the moisture stored in the soil, formed originally by precipitation.
• Blue water is the volume of fresh water evaporated that comes from ground water and surface water resources, such as lakes, ponds and rivers.
• Grey water is the volume of fresh water that is polluted at any stage of the process making a product.

Water embedded in a product can therefore be green, blue, grey or any combination of any of these three types.

Green water comes from precipitation and it is the most environmentally positive option. Using green water does not diminished long term water resources in a region as you are simply using precipitated water that would otherwise evaporate from the soil due to natural causes.

Using blue water removes water from resources such as lakes and aquifers. This reduces the volume of fresh water available for others in society as well the environment. If too much water is taken from lakes and aquifers then the available fresh water in a region may simply run out which can have devastating consequences for populations as well as the environment and biodiversity.

Creating grey water pollutes water resources. This can damage the environment as well as reducing the volume of quality water available for local populations.

Of course the methods used to make any product will have a huge effect on its virtual water composition. Beef made from cows feeding on natural rain-fed grassland will be embedded with green water, whilst beef from cows eating processed feed derived from irrigated crops will be embedded with blue water, which in turn has a huge impact on their respective environmental impacts.

To reduce our global water consumption we need to be careful about the virtual water in the products we buy and where this water has come from. Checking country of origin on a lot of products can help although even this brings up conflicting issues. If buying for example flowers from a less developed country removes virtual water it also provides much needed help to local economies.

If export of virtual water has lead to an increased global water inequity then this process could also be reversed. Water rich nations could export water intensive products to water scare nations, allowing these nations to reserve their own resources. Governments must also look at ways of “greening” the methods of production of goods, thereby reducing strain on limited water resources.

As global populations rise, individual water demands increase and global climate changes we are bound to witness a rise in demand and fall in availability of fresh water across the globe. Although itself just a concept “virtual water” may find itself increasing becoming part of a real world solution to this potential environmental and humanitarian crisis.

References

1. Allan, J.A. (1998) Virtual Water: A Strategic Resource. Global Solutions to Regional Deficits. Groundwater 36: 545-546.

2. Chapagain, A.K., Hoekstra, A.Y., Savenije, H.H.G., Gautam, R. (2006) The water footprint of cotton consumption: An assessment of the impact of worldwide consumption of cotton products on the water resources in the cotton producing countries. Ecological Economics, Vol. 60, No. 1. (2006), 186-203

3. Renault, D., Zimmer, D. (2003) Virtual water in food production and global trade review of methodological issues and preliminary results. World Water Council 2003.

4. Hoekstra, A.Y. (2003), ‘Virtual Water: An Introduction’, in A.Y. Hoekstra (ed.), Virtual Water Trade: Proceedings of the International Expert Meeting on Virtual Water Trade, 13–23.

However, at the other end of the spectrum, there is the concept of behaviour change, incorporating sustainable practices into the everyday lives of the general public. These are projects that are generally on a much smaller scale and are more approachable to the individual. They can include initiatives such as increasing the recycling of waste in an office or at home, encouraging workers to cycle to work and providing them with the means to do so. However, ideas such as increasing employees’ recycling may sound relatively simply to initiate but they are actually quite hard to implement successfully.

Behaviour encompasses complex relationships and actions and therefore there is no one approach, no one size fits all, and it is not a single event; change involves progress over time and it is a complex challenge. Part of the problem may be that behavioural change initiatives don’t consider enough that you are asking people to change behaviours which they may have been carrying out for several years and don’t understand why they should change. Communication is key because to really influence people, people have to understand why change is needed and this understanding needs to be communicated in a manner which is comprehensible to multiple groups. Simply providing information often has little effect unless people understand the reasoning behind it.

It has been argued that one of the most effective methods of implementing effective behaviour change is to do so at the community level, adopting a bottom up approach using peer groups. For example, Defra is sponsoring the Degrees Cooler Programme, which is centred around greening twenty different universities through behaviour change initiatives such as Student Switch Off (an energy saving competition to reduce the energy usage of student halls of residence) [1]. On average, Student Switch Off has produced energy savings of over 9.3% [1], which demonstrates that collective action at the community level can make a difference. Arguably one reason why this programme has been so successful is that it uses students themselves to promote and initiate change. Students are asked to volunteer as Eco Power Rangers in their halls of residence to encourage other students to change their behaviours. People are far more likely to adopt behaviour change if the message is being communicated to them via their peers and they see their peers doing the same thing [3]. People are also more likely to trust messages that are relayed to them by their peers as opposed to the Government [3].

The above method is also very positive and portrays a positive message. Messages like ‘act to be more good not less bad’ tend to be far more effective than messages that rely on guilt and fear. Negative messages often turn people off and generate feelings of ‘what is the point’, ‘why bother’. Positive messages which use motivational techniques such as lobbying or peer pressure [2] help people to believe that they can make a difference, which is part of the challenge when trying to influence behaviour change.

In the work environment, behaviour change schemes can only be sustained if the work environment supports and rewards new behaviours. One-way of doing this is to ensure that adoption of behaviour change is rewarded and recognised [2]. For example, companies could incorporate sustainability criteria into employee performance ratings, bonus rewards and contractor reward fees. By making sustainability and behaviour change part of the fabric of the way a company operates, it helps to normalise the change and people are far more likely to adopt change if the behaviour is perceived as ‘normal’ [3].

Overall, behaviour change is an important tool to cut emissions and reduce environmental damage [3]. However, initiatives to change the behaviour of individuals and groups of people need to be tailored to the situation and circumstance. To ensure that people change their behaviours they need to understand why, and this is achieved by ensuring that positive messages are effectively communicated. Messages need to be communicated as consistently and clearly as possible. Like behavioural change, communication is an ongoing and two way process that needs to be maintained at the highest level.

References

[1] Degrees Cooler: Behavioural Change in Action (2010) [Online]. Available from www.nus.org.uk/en/Campaigns/Green-Zone/Degrees-Cooler-in-Action/

[2] Smith. J. Obtaining Behaviour Change Not Just Raising Awareness [Online]. Available from www.emergingself.com.au/Download%20docs/AAEE2005_handout.pdf

[3] Climate Change: Engagement and Behaviour, Postnote (2010) [Online]. Available from http://www.parliament.uk/documents/post/postpn347.pdf