In the last few years UK research has found that with increased availability of cheaper and more disposable clothing, combined with a lack of awareness of its environmental impact, the skills needed for repairing garments are diminishing [1]. However, in current economic conditions and with improved knowledge of sustainable clothing practices it is thought that clothing repair, along with other activities such as clothes swapping, will become more common [1]. Although findings suggest that skills are being lost over time, those needed to do basic repairs are minimal [2] and there is plenty of advice online for those who are unsure about where to start with mending and repairing clothing.

The University of Kentucky [3] has provided a 10 page document that begins with a guide to deciding whether a garment should be mended or not:

·How extensive is the repair or damage?

·Do I have the knowledge and skill to repair it myself, or do I need to pay to have it done externally?

·Is it worth repairing? (Consider garment age, current fashion, fit, and its use. Will it soon be outgrown or can it be handed down?)

·How long will the repair take? (Do I have the time to do it or look for someone else to repair it?)

·Can I afford to replace the garment at this time?

·Will the garment be worn after it is mended?

The document then goes on to list instructions for various basic repairs such as attaching buttons, repairing seams and hems, darning and patching, and ends with a guide to choosing clothing that is likely to last longer:

·Pick clothing best suited to the needs of the wearer and the type of care the clothes will get

·Check sizes and fit, as clothes that fit well are less likely to suffer strain which causes rips and tears

·Check the sturdiness of features and trimmings, based on the intended use of the clothes

·Look for flaws in the garment

·Once an item is chosen, check through the individual garments on sale to find the one of the best quality

Instructions for repair techniques and advice on different types of stitches can often be found online (e.g. [2, 4]). Instructions for repairing and replacing zips can also be found (e.g. [5, 6]), but bear in mind that buying new zips can be expensive and they may be difficult to insert. Patching and adding pockets are recommended as a way to cover larger rips or holes that could not be sewn up without leaving an obvious repair, while simple embroidery can be used to cover smaller rips and tears [7, 8]. Make it and mend it [9] is a website dedicated to creative sustainability and has lots of articles on repairing, refashioning and making many items, including clothing.

Instructions for repairing using a sewing machine, if one is accessible, are also available (e.g [10]). Some basic items listed as essential kit for making hand repairs (e.g [3, 7]) include:

·Needles of assorted size

·Thread of various colours

·Scissors

·A seam unpicker

·Pins

·Safety pins

·Other items, such as iron-on hem repairer, a tape measure and spare buttons and scraps of material could also be useful

Even if a garment cannot be repaired or is not worth repairing, it could be recycled around the house, for example as a cleaning cloth, before being disposed of [1]. With many clothes being thrown away because they are not thought in good enough repair to donate to charity shops or not profitable enough to sell, and because their owners are not aware of how to recycle them, researchers have found that a return to clothes mending habits is needed to reduce the environmental impact of clothing and improve its sustainability [1, 11].

[1] http://www.thisisnottingham.co.uk/Time-make-mend-says-University/story-12238703-detail/story.html

[2] http://www.csmid.com/sewing.html

[3] http://www.ca.uky.edu/hes/fcs/factshts/CT-MMB-147.PDF

[4] http://www.care2.com/greenliving/5-tips-to-mend-damaged-clothing.html

[5] http://tlc.howstuffworks.com/home/how-to-mend-clothes5.htm

[6] http://www.allaboutyou.com/craft/pattern-finder/sewing-projects/sewing-techniques/make-do-mend-43894?page=2

[7] http://tlc.howstuffworks.com/home/how-to-mend-clothes4.htm

[8] http://www.designmom.com/2012/09/living-well-4-secrets-to-patching-clothes/

[9] http://www.makeitandmendit.com/

[10] www.dummies.com/how-to/content/mending-holes-and-rips-in-your-clothes.html

[11] http://www.ntu.ac.uk/apps/news/83060-5/Get_sewing_for_sustainability_study_says.aspx

While there is much debate about the environmental impact of keeping pets (e.g. [1, 2, 3, 4]), one way of reducing the energy consumption and effect on the environment of products associated with owning a dog is to buy toys that minimise this impact. Two main aspects to this are choosing toys that use few or sustainable resources in the first place, and finding durable toys that won’t need replacing often. In many cases, these two features can be combined.

Strong plastic toys are often the most durable, and will therefore also cost less and use fewer resources in the long run than cheaper, less sturdy toys that break or become worn out easily. Brands such as Kong, Tuffy’s and Vibram K9 are popular toys specially designed to be durable. Such long-lasting toys can also be specifically eco-friendly; there are plenty of toys now available that are made from recycled plastic materials, often plastic bottles. Additionally, some softer toys may be made using recycled materials, particularly for stuffing and fillings. Soft toys with strong stitching, that can’t be easily destroyed, or that will be simple and safe to repair if they are torn apart, will last longer than less robust, possibly initially cheaper toys. Rope toys made from natural fibres such as hemp are also widely available.

Companies producing and selling environmentally friendly dog toys can be found online, and either sell directly, through pet shops, or both. Some products will have more packaging and transportation associated with them than others, but the durability and composition of the toy could outweigh these factors when compared to other products, depending on the needs of the individual dog or owner. Below are a selection of companies providing environmentally friendly dog toys (and in some cases, other products too):

·Planet Dog is a US company with a range of toys, such as plastic balls and bones, made from recycled materials. They are designed to be durable and some of the toys can also be recycled again after use. UK retailers can be found by searching on their website. The products have received good reviews online, particularly in terms of durability, and the company also runs its own non-profit foundation, funded by product sales, to support assistance dogs

·West Paw is another US company that makes non-toxic, recyclable and durable toys. Their products are on sale in the UK, for example from companies such as Pawsability, Stop and Paws (both of which also sell other environmentally friendly dog toys) and Collarways. They also make soft toys from recycled plastic drinks bottles. These toys also get good online reviews

·Becotoys, made by UK based company Becothings, are made from husks left over from farming of sustainably grown bamboo and rice

·Doggie Solutions are another UK based company with a range of environmentally friendly jute dog toys, and also sell other environmentally friendly brands such as Planet Dog

·Surrey-based The Eco Dog Company sells a range of eco-friendly dog toys made by various brands including West Paws

·Natural Dog Store is a UK store which will sell a range of eco-friendly dog products, including toys. It will support a charity working to help Thailand’s neglected dogs and as of November 2012, is launching soon

·Various other online stores also sell toys under categories such as “durable” or “eco-friendly”, and can be found using general search criteria or terms specific to the type of toy required

Additionally, household items that would otherwise be thrown away can be put to use as dog toys. Plastic drinks bottles can be used as temporary or short term toys (remove the lid if it is a possible choking hazard), as can old sports balls and boots, although this is only suitable if the dog is not prone to chewing on other shoes. There are also ideas online for making toys from recycled household materials such as fabrics (e.g. [5,6]).

Have a look at our range of sustainable products to help you reduce your energy consumption across the home.

[1] http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20427313.200-cute-fluffy-and-horribly-greedy.html

[2] http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/nov/13/ethical-living-carbon-emissions

[3] http://www.thedailygreen.com/healthy-eating/blogs/healthy-food/pets-environmental-impact-47122303

[4] http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/the_green_lantern/2010/02/the_trouble_with_kibbles.single.html

[5] http://www.recyclethis.co.uk/20100914/what-can-i-reuse-or-recycle-to-make-a-dogpuppy-toy

[6] http://www.craftbits.com/project/recycled-t-shirt-dogs-tugga-toy

Transition towns (also known as the Transition Network or Transition Movement) are a grassroots community network with the aim of equipping communities to deal with the challenges presented by climate change and peak oil [1].

The Transition idea first started in Kinsale, Ireland [2] and the world’s first Transition Town was Totnes, in Devon, UK, where work began in 2006 [3]. Transition Town Totnes was founded by Rob Hopkins and Naresh Giangrande, and following successful projects there and in collaboration with Peter Lipman of Sustrans, the Transition Network was established in 2007 [2, 4]. Its purpose is to inspire, encourage, connect, support and train communities and create initiatives that increase resilience and reduce CO₂ emissions [1]; a more detailed description of its aims and activities is available in a document available on the Transition Network website [2]. The network started to grow quickly, rapidly spreading to other countries such as Germany, Australia, Canada, Italy and the Netherlands, among others. The Transition Handbook was published in 2008, followed by further more specific guides [1]. As of November 2012, the projects map on the Transition Towns website shows projects all over the world, with the majority in the UK and rest of Europe [5].

Initiatives cover a wide range of scales, including local initiatives, regional hubs and national support networks, all coordinated worldwide by the Transition Network [2]. Common project areas at a local scale include sustainable food sourcing, reducing transport and fuel usage, minimising household energy consumption, encouraging reusing, repairing and recycling, trading of goods and resources and establishing local currency. Regionally, new and existing initiatives are supported and government and business links are established, while infrastructure, training and business opportunities are coordinated on a national level [2].

Various stages are involved in the creation of a Transition Initiative [2]:

·The initial stage – discussion of the Transition concept between interested people

·The “mulling” stage – the individuals or group involved contact the Transition Network and investigate the materials provided about Transition Towns

·Formal Transition Initiative – the group completes a declaration of intention. This lists guidelines and asks for information about the initiative, and checks that the initiative will be able to proceed successfully. The Initiative then gains formal status.

Anyone interested in starting a Transition Initiative should refer to the Transition Network website to find out what is involved. There are full guides to every stage of the process, including benefits of Transition initiatives [6], getting started [7], building momentum and establishing projects [8], broadening links [9], scaling projects up to social enterprises [10], and the ultimate aim of spreading the Transition concept to a wider stage [11].

[1] http://www.transitionnetwork.org/about

[2] http://www.transitionnetwork.org/sites/default/files/WhoWeAreAndWhatWeDo-lowres.pdf

[3] http://www.transitionnetwork.org/initiatives/totnes

[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_Towns

[5] http://www.transitionnetwork.org/projects/map

[6] http://www.transitionnetwork.org/why-do-transition

[7] http://www.transitionnetwork.org/starting

[8] http://www.transitionnetwork.org/deepening

[9] http://www.transitionnetwork.org/connecting

[10] http://www.transitionnetwork.org/building

[11] http://www.transitionnetwork.org/daring

Books can’t usually be recycled in normal household collections because of the glue that’s used to bind them [1]. Books can be sold, but if this is not a preferable or viable option, there are several other alternatives to throwing them away. Some examples are given below:

·Many charity shops will accept books, if they are in reasonable condition

·The local recycling bank may also have a bin for books, for charity donation [2]

·Schools, doctors’ and dentists’ surgeries, hospitals and some libraries may take old books [1]

·Children’s centres might also appreciate donations of children’s books [3]

·ReadItSwapIt is a free service that allows users to exchange books, only paying for postage [4]. Various other similar sites can also be found online, such as Bookmooch which is international and free to join [5]

·Better World Books UK launched in 2008, following establishment in the USA, and is now the world’s biggest socially responsible used bookseller. They provide a free service to dispose of books for reusing and recycling. For every book that is bought from them, they donate a book to somewhere or someone in need. Additionally, they have followed advice to make their business environmentally sustainable and offset their carbon emissions by planting trees in Scotland [6]

·Charity Books provides a revenue generating service for UK charities by selling donated books [7]

·Braille books can also be donated to a charity such as Disabled Equipment Sent Overseas [8] that collects equipment to be sent to countries where it is not readily available. The RNIB National Library Service [9] may also be able to advise on whether they or other organisations are currently accepting donations of braille books

·Book Crossing is a project that allows people to pass their books on to other readers, and track them as they move between people by attaching a label with a unique ID code. Books can be given to someone directly, left somewhere to be found by someone else, or swapped in an official Book Crossing zone which may have been set up locally [10]

There are also various local book recycling schemes and projects, many of which offer a free collection service. They are too numerous to list, but can be found by searching online. Selling books is of course a useful way of ensuring that they are reused, and options for doing so include sites such as Amazon, or specific book selling and recycling sites. An example is Green Metropolis which buys books for £3 and sells them for £3.75 with free postage and no minimum order, donating money to charity and helping the Woodland Trust to plant trees in the process [11]. It’s also worth bearing in mind that purchasing books second hand, or borrowing them from a library rather than buying them, are further ways of increasing the use of an individual book. Having the correct equipment around the home and office to help you recycle other items will also help reduce your environmental impact.

[1] http://www.recyclenow.com/what_can_i_do_today/can_it_be_recycled/paper_products/books.html

[2] http://www.reuze.co.uk/books.shtml

[3] http://www.uk-energy-saving.com/book-recycling.html

[4] http://www.readitswapit.co.uk/TheLibrary.aspx

[5] www.bookmooch.com

[6] http://www.betterworldbooks.co.uk/info.aspx?f=facts

[7] http://www.charitybooks.co.uk/

[8] http://desouk.org/help-donate/

[9] http://www.rnib.org.uk/livingwithsightloss/reading/services/rnibnationallibrary/Pages/national_library_service.aspx

[10] http://www.bookcrossing.com/

[11] http://www.greenmetropolis.com/nonmember.aspx

With 7.2 million tonnes of food and drink, almost half the total food waste in the UK, thrown away from homes each year [1], there is a need to reduce household food waste. About 60% of the food thrown away from households is avoidable, and one of the main reasons that so much food is thrown away is that it isn’t used in time; many people are confused by the different date labels on food packaging [1, 2]. Having the right equipment to help you compost your food waste will help reduce your environmental impact.

Packaging can have three different labels – a “display until” or “sell by” date, a “best before” date and a “use by” date. The display until or sell by date is an instruction to the store selling the product, not the customer [3], so should not be used to determine whether or not food is safe to eat. Some manufacturers are now removing these dates from their packaging to help avoid confusion. For example Warburton’s stopped using these labels in 2010, in line with the rest of the bakery sector [2].

Best before and use by dates are the ones that are important for food consumers. The main difference is that a best before date indicates when food is expected, by the manufacturer, to be at its best quality [4]. The date does not indicate when food becomes unsafe to eat. A use by date, on the other hand, means that food shouldn’t be consumed after this date [4].

Therefore, food eaten past its best before date is not unsafe, but the texture and flavour might have deteriorated [3]. The best before date will only be a useful guide if the food has been stored according to the instructions given. These might include keeping the food in the fridge, or storing it in a cool, dry place [3]. According to the NHS, eggs can safely be eaten a few days past the best before date, as long as they are fully cooked to kill bacteria such as salmonella [3]. As eggs lose freshness, the amount of air inside them increases and therefore they are less likely to sink in water – an easy way to check if an egg is off before cracking the shell open is to put it in a bowl of water. If it sinks with at least part of the egg touching the base of the bowl, it’s fresh enough to use, and if it floats it should not be eaten [5]. To check the level of freshness of an egg, the yolk and white can be inspected. The egg should be broken onto a flat plate (not a bowl). A very fresh egg, which is good for frying and poaching, will have a round, compact yolk that sits high in the middle of the white. A slightly cloudy white is also a sign of freshness, as it is caused by the carbon dioxide that is present when the egg is laid. Less fresh eggs, which can be used in recipes where the texture of the egg is not so important (such as sauces, cakes and omelettes), have flatter yolks which might be easily broken, and thinner whites that spread further over the plate [5].

Use by dates are given on food that goes off quickly, such as meat, soft cheese, freshly prepared salads, milk and yoghurts [3, 6]. The use by date officially means that food should not be used after midnight of that day [7], as using the food after this date may be harmful to health [8]. Foods must be removed from sale once the use by date has passed [4]. The date given will only be valid if storage instructions are followed, including those for after the packaging has been opened [3]. Failure to follow these instructions could cause food to go off more quickly, presenting a risk of food poisoning [8]. The usable life of food with use by dates can be extended by freezing it before the use by date . This can be done on any day up to the use by date, not just on the day of purchase, as long as the food has been stored correctly [2, 8]. It is important to note that while instructions might say that food has to be eaten within a week of opening, if the use by date is less than a week away, the food should still not be used after that date [3, 8].

In summary, best before dates apply to food quality and food can still be used once they have passed, whereas use by dates refer to food safety and food should not be used after these dates [7].

[1] http://england.lovefoodhatewaste.com/content/facts-about-food-waste-0

[2] http://england.lovefoodhatewaste.com/content/how-much-food-wasted-total-across-uk

[3] http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/Goodfood/Pages/food-labelling-terms.aspx

[4] http://www.elmbridge.gov.uk/envhealth/food/useby.htm

[5] http://www.helpwithcooking.com/egg-guide/fresh-egg-test.html

[6] http://www.eaststaffsbc.gov.uk/Services/FoodTeam/Pages/UseByandBestBeforeDates.aspx

[7] http://www.defra.gov.uk/publications/files/pb132629-food-date-labelling-110915.pdf

[8] http://www.food.gov.uk/about-us/about-the-fsa/faqsconsumer/#.UIP-MPWQPSg

Costumes and decorations

The easiest way to make Halloween decorations and costumes more environmentally friendly
is to reuse and recycle them. Costumes can be homemade from other clothes, swapped with
other people, bought second hand or used in more than one year. Ideas for costumes for
adults and children can be found online [e.g. 2, 3] and can easily be adapted. Jewellery, for
example spider earrings and bracelets [4, 5], can also be made from recycled materials.

Decorations can also be homemade and used again. There are lots of ideas online for
Halloween arts and crafts, particularly for children to make. Many use recycled or household
materials, such as lanterns made from old teacups, jars or milk bottles, a candle decorated
with napkins, pictures and cards made with paper hole punchings and egg box bats [6, 7, 8].

Pumpkin lanterns

The least environmentally friendly way to create a Halloween lantern from a pumpkin is
probably to buy a non-locally sourced pumpkin from a supermarket, carve out the insides and
throw the remains straight in the bin. Alternatively, a pumpkin could be grown in a garden or
allotment through the year, ready for Halloween, or locally grown pumpkin could be bought.
The flesh and seeds can be eaten, and any remains could be composted or, where available,
put into council composting and garden waste collections.

Pumpkin seeds can be sown from April to June in pots for planting into the ground later, or
from late May to early summer directly into the ground. They should be fed and watered
regularly whilst growing, and once harvested can be stored for four to six months. The BBC
Gardening website has further instructions and advice for growing the best pumpkin for
Halloween [9].

Various pumpkin recipes can be found online or in cookery books. For example, pumpkin
flesh can be used to make soup (this is also a good way of using pumpkins that haven’t
grown big enough for lanterns, and the soup can be cooked and served in the hollowed out
pumpkin shells) [10] or pumpkin pie [11], and the seeds can be roasted [12] to make snacks
or toppings for other food such as cereal or yoghurt. The oven only needs to be at 140oC, so
could be used to roast the seeds after cooking something else at a higher temperature.

Halloween treats

Fun size treats given out at Halloween use more packaging and resources than full size
products – while individually packaged sweets can be a good idea for hygiene reasons
if they’re going to be given out at the front door, using fewer full size treats rather than

more fun sizes ones can reduce their carbon footprint. They can also be stored in reusable
containers, rather than given out in disposable bags. For treats at home or at parties, food can
be homemade, and making it can also be turned into an activity for children. There are lots
of recipes available online for general Halloween treats and party food, such as cupcakes,
toasted bats, a graveyard cake, Halloween biscuits, chocolate spiders, peanut butter eyeballs,
witches’ hats, eyeball pasta and spider jellies [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18], as well as Halloween
cocktails for adults and children [19]. Avoiding disposable plates, cups and cutlery is also
a good idea; if breakages are a worry, solid plastic or metal items that can be washed and
reused are an alternative to single use paper or disposable plastic products.

[1] http://www.greenmuze.com/green-your/42-celebrations/212-green-halloween-.html
[2] http://www.thedailygreen.com/living-green/homemade-halloween-costumes-for-adults-1008
[3] http://spoonful.com/halloween/halloween-kids-costumes
[4] http://tinygreenmom.com/2011/10/how-to-make-spider-earrings-with-recycled-materials/
[5] http://www.ehow.com/video_2369236_halloween-crafts-spider-bracelet-tips.html
[6] http://www.artistshelpingchildren.org/halloween-decorationsmakingcraftsideaskids.html
[7] http://familyfun.go.com/halloween/halloween-crafts/halloween-decorations/
[8] http://www.thedailygreen.com/living-green/homemade-halloween-costumes-for-adults-1008
[9] http://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/basics/techniques/growfruitandveg_growingpumpkins1.shtml
[10] http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/pumpkinsoup_89904
[11] http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/pumpkinpie_70659
[12] http://allrecipes.co.uk/recipe/2170/oven-roasted-pumpkin-seeds.aspx
[13] http://www.netmums.com/family-food/seasonal/devilish-delights-halloween-party-food
[14] childparenting.about.com/od/funcelebrations/tp/Spook-Tacular-Treats-Fun-Halloween-Recipes-For-Kids.htm
[15] http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/collections/halloween_baking_recipes
[16] http://halloween.about.com/od/recipesforhalloweentreat/Recipes_for_Halloween_Treats.htm
[17] http://halloween.about.com/od/recipesforhalloweentreat/Recipes_for_Halloween_Treats.htm
[18] http://www.bbcgoodfood.com/content/recipes/occasions/halloween/
[19] http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/collections/halloween_cocktail_recipes

• Use both sides of the paper. Whenever possible use double sided photocopying – and make sure that all staff regularly using photocopiers know how to do this. Better still, set the photocopier to default to double sided printing!
• If your laser printer has a duplex option, use that for multiple page items.
• Make departments and sections responsible for their own photocopying budgets, so that they have an incentive to print double sided as well as being exhorted to do so
• Use paper printed one side only for notepads. A bulldog clip is useful for holding pieces together.
• Use scrap paper for notes to colleagues.
• Reuse envelopes for internal circulation or make sure they are recycled in the first place
• Make better use of notice boards rather circulating copies of all non-urgent memos and other circulars to all staff.
• Review the need for computer print-outs from time to time – it is all too easy to go on printing out a regular fifty page report for the same ten people who have received it for the last two years – do they all still want it, do any of them want it?
• With a networked computer system, consider using electronic mail for inter-office memos
• Keep a pile of good quality recycled A4 scrap paper next to the printer for rough or trial copies. Out of date headed paper is ideal for this purpose.
• Use the smallest piece of paper appropriate to the task. For example, photocopy A3 documents to A4 size, use A5 size cover sheets for faxes, or just send one A4 page if the message is short.
• Have a policy that photocopiers and printers always reset to single copy printing after someone has used them, and check anyway before using them.
• Reuse wallet folders, hanging file dividers and other storage items Review procedures that require regular circulation of forms and memos, and how many can be eliminated.
• Regularly check computerised mailing lists and remove duplicates and out of date addresses.

General rubbish

Although almost two thirds of UK waste can be recycled, around half is still disposed of as general waste [1]. Every time something is thrown away, all the energy that was used to produce the raw materials, and produce, package, store and transport the finished product goes with it. General waste is disposed of in landfill or by incineration, both of which have environmental impacts. Why not consider using a compost bin to put your food waste in, therefore removing it from your general waste amount?

Tens of millions of tonnes of waste go to landfill each year in England and Wales alone [2]. The UK produces a higher proportion of biodegradable waste than most other European countries – about two thirds of waste going into landfill is this type, which releases the greenhouse gases methane and carbon dioxide as it decomposes [3]. Although some of this gas is captured at some sites to be used to generate energy [3], significant amounts of greenhouses gases are still released from landfill sites. Additionally, chemicals leached from waste can cause pollution, methane is explosive, and if waste is not well managed it can attract vermin [4]. The Landfill Directive states that by 2013, waste going to landfill should be 50% of that sent in 1995, while by 2015 it should 35% [5].

There have been concerns about waste incineration, due to release of toxins when some substances, such as plastics, are burnt and because of the contribution to air pollution [4]. The Environment Agency has found no evidence for risk to human health and only low contribution to background air pollution due to tight emissions regulations [2]. Energy can be produced from burning waste and all UK incinerators recapture some of the heat produced and supply it to the national grid, although Greenpeace consider this an inefficient way to produce energy [6]; Energy from Waste plants producing electricity, according the Environment Agency, are 25% efficient [2]. As there will always be some waste that cannot be reused or recycled, alternatives to landfill such as incineration will increase in use as landfill availability decreases, and incineration is considered preferable to landfill because it presents a higher rate of energy recovery and generates lower greenhouse gas emissions [2]. While the UK only recovered energy from 11% of municipal waste (waste from homes, schools, shops, small businesses and council waste collections) in 2006/07, Denmark were able to recover energy from 54% of theirs [2], so there is potential for improvement. However, incineration is only preferable to landfill for non-recyclable and non-reusable waste. Recycling can and should be increased [2].

Recycling

Materials that can be recycled as part of kerbside collections vary between local authorities, but recyclable items that can’t be collected can often be taken to local recycling points instead, such as those listed by Recycle Now [7]. Recycling items conserves fossil fuels, both as raw materials and through the energy used to make products, and reduces the amount of waste going into landfill. Common household recycled items go through various processes after collection and delivery at a Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) [8, 9]:

• Plastic – different types of plastic, of which there are many, are sorted and broken down into flakes, cleaned, melted and then made back into a wide variety of new plastic or plastic-containing items
• Glass – this is sorted by colour, crushed, melted and into new bottles and jars. This is more energy and resource efficient than creating brand new items. Recycled glass can also be used in fibre-glass and road surfacing. Over 80% of the glass collected for recycling is used in the UK
• Cans and aerosols – these are sorted using a magnet and compressed, then melted and rolled out into a sheet. Aluminium is sold back to can makers, where it can be used in a new can within six weeks of its disposal, while steel is recycled in a wide range of way, for example in fridges, new cans, as components of machinery and in the construction industry
• Paper – this is pulped at a mill and inks and staples, etc., are washed out. The pulp is then reduced in thickness between wire meshes, dried and rolled into reels. All of the newsprint in the UK is now made from recycled paper, which can be produced within a week of initial collection
• Food waste – large-scale processing plants heat and sterilise food waste to remove bacteria, and it is then composted, which takes a few months
• Clothing and shoes – these are sorted, then sent to UK charity shops or overseas to wherever they are needed

Much of these recycled materials are used in the UK, while some are exported to other countries such as China which, because they don’t have many raw resources, pay for recycled substances such as plastics – although this means transport of material, it is still preferable to extraction and processing of further raw materials [9].

The image below shows what happens to a plastic bottle, and associated implications, if it is thrown away in general rubbish, and when it is recycled [10].

In terms of which methods of waste reduction and disposal are the most environmentally friendly, Directgov lists five levels in the “waste hierarchy”:

1. Prevention – reducing overall waste production
2. Reuse – finding a new use for items and materials
3. Recycle – making new products out of materials recovered from old products
4. Energy recovery – creating energy from waste, for example by incineration
5. Disposal – usually, burying waste in landfill

where number one, reducing waste production in the first place, is the best option [11].

[1] http://www.which.co.uk/home-and-garden/home-improvements/guides/what-happens-to-your-rubbish/

[2] http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/static/documents/Business/Information_Pack_-_QA_%282%29.pdf

[3] http://www.surreycc.gov.uk/environment-housing-and-planning/waste-and-recycling/about-our-waste-and-recycling-services/what-we-do-with-your-waste-and-recycling/landfill-sites#1

[4] http://www.greenchoices.org/green-living/waste-recycling/environmental-impacts

[5] http://www.recycling-guide.org.uk/targets.html

[6] http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/files/pdfs/migrated/MultimediaFiles/Live/FullReport/3766.PDF

[7] http://www.recyclenow.com/

[8] http://www.which.co.uk/home-and-garden/home-improvements/guides/what-happens-to-your-rubbish/recycled-rubbish/

[9] http://www.recyclenow.com/why_recycling_matters/why_it_matters/what_happens_to_our.html

[10] http://www.which.co.uk/home-and-garden/home-improvements/guides/what-happens-to-your-rubbish/what-happens-to-your-recycling/

[11] http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Environmentandgreenerliving/Wasteandrecycling/DG_064365

However, the Centre for Alternative Technology (CAT) has developed a “fully integrated solution to climate change” [3] that outlines how Britain could cut net greenhouse gas emissions to zero by 2030, surpassing the government target, with the added benefit of creating thousands of new jobs and regaining energy security [4]. This was published as a 384 page report, written by authors including policy makers, scientists, academics, NGOs and industry experts, on 16^th June 2010.

The main idea of the Zero Carbon Britain 2030 strategy is that energy demand can be significantly reduced without decreasing services provided. This would be achieved by “Powering Down” by reducing energy demand through use of new technology, efficient design and behavioural change, and then “Powering Up” using renewable technology [3]. The report also asserts that as the global cut in emissions required to limit global warming to 2^oC higher than pre-industrial levels is severe, industrialised nations such as the UK, which are historically responsible for human-induced climate change and also have the resources and technologies available to rectify it, should take a greater share of the burden and cut emissions faster than less industrialised countries [3]. The report itself is long and detailed, but some main points can be summarised:

Examples of “powering down” (with supporting evidence and suggestions on how to achieve them) given in the report include:

• Designing buildings to be more energy efficient, so that demand for domestic heating and lighting would see a reduction of 80% by 2030. Strategies which will go some way to achieving this are already in place, for example new homes and schools have to have zero net carbon emissions by 2016, with public and other non-domestic buildings complying by 2018 and 2019 respectively, and existing buildings would be refurbished
• Constructing new buildings from natural materials with low “embodied energy” (the total energy used in resource extraction, transportation, manufacture and fabrication of an item) that can also sequester carbon (carbon sequestration is the removal of carbon from the air to be locked up elsewhere, for example in the land or in plants)
• Increased use of improved public transport systems, with private car owners paying for travel per mile to make comparison with public transport costs easier, and pay-per-hour car clubs
• Increased use of electricity as a domestic transport fuel
• Transport of cargo by ships powered by solar panels, sails and sustainable fuels
• No domestic air travel, and a cut in long-haul flights, resulting in an overall aviation reduction of about two-thirds on current levels
• Only allowing about 15% of food consumed in Britain to come from the EU and 7.5% from the tropics, with remaining food needs being met domestically – this is important due to the embodied energy in imported foods
• No new arable land, and protection of peat-lands, to preserve the carbon reservoirs that are stored in soil and released if the land is disturbed
• Meeting the nation’s food needs using only 29% of the land that is currently used for this purpose
• A greater proportion of plant-based products compared to livestock products, which will be reduced by 70-80% with a particular focus on sheep and cows as they require high land use and produce a lot of greenhouse gases
• Land freed up by reducing livestock would be used to grow biomass (plants grown for providing fuel) and for sequestration of carbon to balance out necessary carbon emissions, therefore creating zero net carbon emissions
• Energy demands would be decreased by 55% on 2008 levels, allowing for a doubling in electricity demand due to increased use of electric cars

Methods suggested (again with supporting figures, suggestions for overcoming potential problems and topics highlighted for further research) for “powering up” include:

• Sources of energy would be renewable, such as biofuels (liquid fuel derived from plants, which carbon neutral as the plants absorb CO₂ whilst growing), wind turbines and solar, marine and hydro power where appropriate
• Offshore wind would be particularly important – Britain already has the highest offshore wind deployment in Europe and there are plans for more
• Large hydro power, which can be switched on in seconds, and biomass fuels would be used to balance out the dependency of power sources such as wind, wave and solar on weather conditions and ensure demand is met at all times
• Biogas could be made from materials currently considered as waste, such as animal dung, sewage, food waste or grass
• Using renewable energy, Britain’s reduced energy needs, including the doubling in electricity demand, could be met without the use of fossil fuels or nuclear power, which is excluded for safety, security and financial reasons
• Offering rewards and incentives for producing renewable energy, such as are already in place
• Using microgrids and distributed renewable energy generation (so that energy is generated close to the consumer) to minimise energy losses during transmission and deal with energy shortages at peak times
• A small amount of energy from renewable sources would be imported to manage variability
• A larger amount of energy would be exported than imported, helping to cover costs associated with decarbonising the electricity supply and managing variability
• Use of High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) cables, rather than alternating current (AC) cables when transporting power over long distances, to minimise transmission losses
• Nationwide smart meters or smart appliances which control times at which appliances such as electric storage radiators, electric vehicles, air conditioners, washing machines and dishwashers are charged or in use, to manage energy demand and reduce cost to the consumer if these times coincide with surplus energy in the grid (likely to be at night as wind power generation would continue overnight)
• Buildings could be fitted with larger hot water storage cylinders containing smart meters so that they could be charged at night for space heating during the day

Besides limiting climate change, other noted benefits [3, 5] of achieving the target of zero net carbon emissions include:

• Dealing with the peak oil/gas problem (the point at which the global peak production rate of oil and gas is reached, currently forecast to occur sometime between now and 2031, after which production will decline and prices will rise accordingly)
• High employment due to the development of new energy technologies
• An ease in the decline of the UK steel industry as this will be needed to develop offshore wind power
• Better food and energy security as most food and energy would be produced domestically
• Improved diet and health
• A potential increase in biodiversity
• A better urban/rural balance

There are also suggestions for international and national policy frameworks and schemes to be established to facilitate these actions, and an exploration of the potential of a zero carbon Britain to increase employment and social equality. For example, policies would need to be in place to ensure fair pricing and avoid fuel poverty. Obviously a lack of or reduction in things we have become accustomed to, such as domestic and long-haul flights, car ownership and imported and other types of food, will mean radical lifestyle changes for some. But unfortunately these things will eventually become less and less sustainable and available with diminishing fossil fuel reserves anyway, making behavioural changes unavoidable. As the report points out, with the imminence of peak oil production and the decline of UK fossil fuel reserves, it is advisable to reduce the dependency of our society and transport system on oil.

Zero Carbon Britain 2030 is a scenario suggested by CAT and has triggered some debate, as might be expected with any proposal to limit climate change by altering every day practices, however public support for the idea it outlines is growing. For example, a similar plan has been drawn up in Australia, and 16^th July 2011 saw events take place as part of Zero Carbon Britain day. Achieving these targets or those set out by the UK government for 2050 will require a large shift in behaviour and policies and these changes may be difficult to implement, but this report shows that they are not impossible.

[1] http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Environmentandgreenerliving/Thewiderenvironment/Climatechange/DG_072901

[2] http://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/tackling/2050/calculator_exc/calculator_exc.aspx

[3] http://www.neweconomics.org/publications/zero-carbon-britain-2030

[4] http://www.cat.org.uk/news/news_release.tmpl?command=search&db=news.db&eqSKUdatarq=37990&home=0

[5] http://www.ecoinnovationlab.com/uploads/attachments/article/432/Peter%20Harper%20ZCB%20Public%20Lecture%20Slideshow_Australia2011.pdf

General consumption

Heating and lighting are two big areas of energy use, in any home or building. Turning off lights in empty rooms and switching things off completely instead of leaving them on standby is obvious, but not instinctive to everyone, and sometimes things are left on in locked empty rooms so that nobody can turn them off. Use of energy saving bulbs wherever possible reduces energy consumption, and minimises waste if an inaccessible light is left on. Energy used by equipment on standby is harder to eliminate for items in individual rooms, but communal appliances at least can be switched off at the wall when not in use, particularly if they are positioned so that it’s easy to reach the switch. Many halls and communal stairways have timer switches already fitted – these should be repaired as soon as possible if they become jammed.

Bedrooms should be cooler than the rest of the house to facilitate sleep [1], but this can be difficult if they are being used to live and work in, as well as sleep. If there are communal areas, these could be kept warmer while the bedrooms are heated at a lower level. Kitchens will naturally be warmer during and after cooking or if there are a few people in them, and if several people are in communal areas rather than individual rooms the number of rooms being lit also decreases too. Keeping doors, particularly to empty rooms, shut helps to keep heat in. Of course it isn’t always practical to have everyone in the same room, but shared areas can be used for socialising and eating. For example, watching one television together (arguments about what to watch aside) is much nicer socially and environmentally than everyone watching several televisions separately. Similarly, while it’s likely there are going to be several computers and phones that need charging, and these aren’t exactly easy to share (although if there are places where they are used that allow charging, such as trains, libraries and study areas, charging them there whilst in use reduces electricity consumption at home, which all helps), things like games consoles can be used by several people at once. It’s worth bearing in mind that some use much more energy than others, for example a Playstation 3 can use more than twenty times as much energy as a Nintendo Wii [2]. The Sust-it website [3] gives energy consumption comparisons for a wide range of electrical goods, which is also useful if a new appliance is needed.

Some tariffs provide a free energy meter, which although they have to be plugged in use a very small amount of energy per year and could more than make up for that in the amount of energy they help save. They show which appliances are using the most electricity (they can also be borrowed from libraries if they don’t come with the tariff, so this can be checked at least once) and whether consumption is high, medium or low at any one time. This can highlight which television would be best to have as the communal one, for example, or if something has accidentally been left on at times when consumption should be low. At night or when everyone will be away for a while, if only the fridge and freezer should be running but the energy consumption reading is much higher, it’s less likely that a light or computer will accidentally be left on. If your energy provider does not provide an energy monitor then why not look into purchasing one for the benefit of everyone within the shared accommodation.

Dripping or leaking taps should be fixed as soon as possible, as over time drips add up to litres and litres of water, possibly thousands [4], and if it’s the hot tap it might be increasing gas or electricity consumption too. The amount of energy used to heat hot water, and use of water itself can be quickly reduced by taking showers rather than baths [4] – a house with a shower only is not necessarily a bad thing.

Washing and drying clothes

If a washing machine is installed, washing can be done jointly, or for anyone not comfortable with that, it’s best if enough washing can be saved to do a full load at once. Things like towels and bedding will fill out the machine if there aren’t enough clothes. Most items, unless really dirty, can be washed at low temperatures on short cycles. This can eliminate the need to separate out dark and light colours and whites for many items too, but colourfastness should always be checked first. Washing half loads uses a lot more than half of the energy and water than a full load [5], which adds up significantly over time.

Drying can be a problem if there isn’t a garden – even with a balcony, tenancy contracts might stipulate that these aren’t to be used for drying clothes. A tumble dryer isn’t always the best answer, as a lot of items can’t go in them anyway, and they often use more energy than a washing machine [6, 7]. If one is used, again full loads are best [8]. If clothes have to be dried inside, drying directly on the radiators might dry them quicker, but it also makes the radiators work much harder to heat the room and releases water vapour right next to the walls, which isn’t good for wallpaper and paintwork and can be costly later. Use of as many clothes dryers as there is room for will help, as the more air that can circulate around the material, the faster it will dry. They can be put near open windows for the same reason, if the weather’s warm enough. If heating is set to come on at certain times then having washing cycles finishing at this time will allow washing to initially dry more quickly than in a cold room, and it should be spun in the machine before being taken out. If any signs of damp appear where the washing is being dried, this should be checked and sorted out as soon as possible – if a room is prone to or likely to develop damp, it shouldn’t ideally be used for drying. If space, and safety, allow, indoor washing lines can be set up when needed using string or twine.

Cooking, shopping and food waste

Similarly, cooking together reduces the amount of energy used. Food might take slightly longer to cook if more of it is being cooked at once, but this is still far less consumptive than doing smaller amounts in several batches. Water used for washing up can be minimised too if everything is washed together rather than hot water having to be drawn multiple times for a small number of items, or if a dishwasher is run on a full rather than a half cycle [8]. Washing up by hand should be done in a bowl rather than under a running tap [4]. If the tap has to be run to get hot water, the cold water could be caught and used for something else, like washing vegetables or watering plants.

Buying food jointly might be difficult, especially considering differing tastes and budgets, but as well as saving energy, cooking together can also reduce food waste and means things can be bought in larger packs, which is often cheaper. Food that isn’t going to be used could be offered to someone else before it goes off so that it’s not wasted. And even if food can’t be bought jointly, if going in a car is the only viable option then making shopping trips together reduces and shares the petrol costs. If several people are unpacking food at once, it can be tempting to leave the fridge and freezer doors open, but this means that they are warming up and will need to use more electricity to get cold again. Whether cooking is done jointly or individually, microwaves and stovetops use less energy than cooking in an oven [9]. If an oven is used, opening the door as little as possible prevents too much heat escaping [8]. And clearing up spills as soon as they happen can make a surprising difference to the amount of cleaning products used in the kitchen.

Some of the things above might seem obvious to some people, but it’s always worth remembering that they might not be to others. It’s not always easy to coordinate habits in a large group of people, and there will always be some who are more energy conscious and perhaps considerate than others, but reducing consumption and therefore the size of the bills is beneficial to everyone, and of course the environment.

[1] http://www.dothegreenthing.com/wiki/display/WIKI/Turn+down+thermostats+on+room+heating.

[2] http://www.sust-it.net/energy_saving.php?id=71

[3] http://www.sust-it.net/

[4] http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/In-your-home/Water/Water-saving-advice

[5] http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Environmentandgreenerliving/Greenerhomeandgarden/Greenershopping/DG_064370

[6] http://www.sust-it.net/energy_saving.php?id=1

[7] http://www.sust-it.net/energy_saving.php?id=41

[8] http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/In-your-home/Products-for-your-home/Kitchen-appliances

[9] http://efficient-products.defra.gov.uk/spm/download/document/id/786